introduction
The branch of biotechnology applied in the medical field and pharmaceutical industries is called Red biotechnology.
Biotechnology has revolutionized the field of health and medicine in many ways, modern biotechnology has shown possibilities of tackling and solving complex medical challenges with greater precision and effectiveness.
Scientists use certain technologies to harness the power in living organisms and their systems to provide innovative solutions for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Examples of these innovations are like development of new drugs, therapies, vaccines, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics tools for human disease. Biotechnological applications in the medical field, have significantly increased specificity and sensitivity during disease detection processes and have also improved precise treatment of diseases facing humanity hence, improving human health and wellbeing.
The applications of biotechnology in health span around many areas including medical research, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, and regenerative medicine. In this article, we are going to discuss 4 main biotechnological techniques that are applied in health.
4 main applications of biotechnology in health.
1. Recombinant DNA technology
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Recombinant DNA technology is the joining together of DNA molecules from different organisms and inserting it into the host organisms to produce new genetic combination that is of value.
The purpose of Recombinant DNA technology is to make a host organism produce desired proteins. Scientists manipulate and alter the DNA molecule to create new combinations which result into production of desired proteins.
You would want to know how this scientific magic works, Follow these steps.!
step 1. isolation: A DNA segment with property to produce certain protein is isolated from the source organism using enzymes called restriction enzyme, this enzyme cuts DNA at specific sequence regions.
step 2. Vector isolation: A vector is DNA molecule that carries foreign DNA into the target organism. Often, plasmids or viral vector are used as vectors. The same restriction enzyme that was used to cut the desired DNA fragment is also used here to cut the vector at specific sites creating a site into which a foreign DNA can be introduced to and ligated into.
step 3. Ligation: The isolated DNA fragment is then joined into a vector using an enzyme called ligase. This newly made DNA from the combination of target DNA and vector DNA is called recombinant DNA.
step 4. Insertion: The recombinant DNA is then inserted into the host organism usually bacteria and yeast, which serve as the machinery to replicate the Recombinant DNA.
step 5. Expression: This is usually the last step whereby the Recombinant DNA uses the host cellular machinery synthesize its own proteins.
So, from all those above stages an organism with the recombinant DNA will express the desired proteins, which can be harnessed and purified ready for use.
Applications of Recombinant DNA technology in medicine
Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized this field of medicine in many ways, in this section we will explain two main roles that recombinant DNA has played in the medicine field.
i) Pharmaceutical products
Recombinant DNA technology is used in the production of a class of pharmaceutical drugs called biopharmaceuticals. Biopharmaceuticals are drug products manufactured from biological sources such as living cells or organisms, these drugs are often composed of sugars, complex proteins or nucleic acids. Biopharmaceuticals are designed to be very specific, and their mode of action is by targeting specific molecules or pathways in the body that are involved in disease occurrence. Here are some examples of biopharmaceuticals that have been made using Recombinant DNA technology.
- Recombinant Human insulin; before recombinant DNA technology, insulin for the treatment of type 1 diabetes was obtained from animal sources, but after the discovery of this technology, insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into E. coli bacteria which then produces insulin for human use.
- Recombinant Human growth hormone (HGH); it is administered to support normal growth and development to people whose pituitary gland produce insufficient quantities of growth hormones. Before the recombinant DNA technology, HGH was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers which is unsafe practice.
- Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII; factor VIII is an essential blood clotting protein. The recombinant clotting factor VIII is administered to people with bleeding disorders unable to produce sufficient factor VIII to support normal blood coagulation, before this technology, this protein was obtained by processing human blood from multiple donors (high risk transmission of blood borne infectious diseases diseases).
ii) Recombinant vaccines
Recombinant DNA technology has changed the way we produce vaccines. Traditionally, vaccines are produced by conventional methods whereby the produced vaccines are made up of a pathogen causing a certain disease but usually this pathogen is either inactivated or attenuated to stimulate the immune system, this method takes a very long period of time to come up with a safer vaccine. But recombinant DNA technology has come up with an effective way to make vaccines by just inserting the gene of a pathogen a with antigenic effect in the body, and the body acts as a machinery to produce proteins with antigenic properties which would elicit the immune system. In the rise of epidemic disease such as COVID-19 this technology has shown efficiency and simplicity in producing vaccines.
To wind up here, recombinant DNA technology has brought big improvements in the medical field enabling efficiency and cost-effective production of therapeutics, and vaccines which are significantly contributed to availability and accessibility of life-saving medications and opened up new room for drug discovery and development.
2. Gene therapy
Gene therapy is a biotechnological technique in medicine that aims to treat genetic diseases by modifying genes within individual cells to replace, suppress or supplement the default gene.
There are some diseases which can’t be cured using traditional medicine or surgery, such diseases are like, Genetic diseases (sickle cell diseases, cystic fibrosis) and some types of cancer. Genetic diseases arise when there is a defect in a gene that is responsible for producing certain proteins, we call this mutation (keep in mind, that not every mutation causes diseases).
Gene therapy works by introducing a healthy gene to replace or suppress a default gene. This technique has proved new possibilities of treating these diseases with preciseness, So, instead of using traditional treatment methods like medication and surgery, health care introduces a functional genetic material into your body which either replaces faulty gene or makes it inactive.
How is this health gene introduced in your cells?
For scientists to insert a new health gene in your cell, they need a vehicle called vector, these are genetically engineered molecular tools which carry the foreign genes into the host cell. The most preferred vectors are viral vectors, but firstly, the viral vector is inactivated to prevent it from replicating its own genome.
There are mainly two ways by which a new genetic material can be introduced in your cells.
Invivo; The gene is delivered directly into your cells through injection.
Invitro; The cells are removed outside of your body and the gene is introduced into them, then they are returned back into your body.
The science behind gene therapy!
After a new gene has been introduced in your cells this is what happens.
- Viral entry: viral vector binds on a specific receptor on target cell and enters into the cell.
- Gene expression: a foreign genetic material is released from the viral vector, then integrates into the target cell DNA becoming part of it. It is then transcribed into mRNA which this enters the ribosomes (protein machine) to be translated to functional products. Therapeutic
- Therapeutic effect: the expressed product carries out its intended therapeutic effect.
There are three main types of approaches in gene therapy depending on the nature of genetic disorders.
- Gene replacement: when there is certain fault or missing of a gene responsible for expressing certain proteins, a health gene is introduced in your body to replace that fault gene.
- Gene silencing: if there’s a gene whose activity is interfering with normal cellular functioning, a gene is inserted in the body to suppress the expression of that bad gene in the cells.
- Gene addition: when a protein producing gene has problems resulting into a genetic disease, a new copy of health gene is introduced into your cells to produce more specific proteins the cell needs. This approach is more successful in comparison to silencing and replacement.
Applications of Gene therapy in health
i). Treatment of genetic disorders
Gene therapy holds a promise for treating genetic disorders which are caused by single gene mutation. Examples are cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and hemophilia.
ii). Treatment of cancer
Here is the list of some genetic therapies that have been approved by the U.S. FDA and European Medicine Agency (EMA)
1.Luxturna; treatment to improve vision in people with genetic loss due to inherited retinal eye disease. Approved in 2017
2.Zolgensma; used to treat spinal muscular atrophy in children younger than 2 yrs. old. Approved in 2019 by FDA
Gene therapy products are regulated by the FDA’s Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER). Many gene therapies are still on trial phases, for example, gene therapies for cancer, gene therapies for infectious diseases such as HIV, Hepatitis and malaria are still on trial.
3. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
When it comes to accurate diagnosis of diseases, one can’t ignore what the PCR (Polymerase chain) reaction has contributed to this medical field. PCR was invented in 1983 by American biochemist Kary Mullis. Since then, this biotechnological technique has changed the way we diagnose diseases, its enables to make millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence in samples allowing healthcare professionals to detect, the presence of infectious diseases, with accuracy even if in they are in tiny amounts.
Polymerase chain reaction is a technique used to amplify and produce multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence or target region. This reaction is carried in a machine called thermocycler. It relies on the principle of temperature-controlled cycles that allow amplification of a target DNA sequence.
The technique utilizes a heat stable enzyme called DNA polymerase, which catalyzes the synthesis of DNA molecules from deoxyribonucleotides triphosphates.
Procedures of PCR
To get a clear understanding on how PCR is applied in health, you should first be familiar with the way it works.
reagents used in PCR.
- dNTPs (deoxyribonucleotides triphosphates); these are building blocks of DNA.
- Template: DNA in the sample that we aim to multiply
- Primers (forward and backward); these are short nucleotides that are complementary to the DNA target region that we aim to amplify.
- Nuclease free water and buffers.
So, how does the PCR work?
It starts by the healthcare worker taking your sample, (it can be blood, saliva, mucus or tissue) the sample contains your DNA and possibly the DNA of the pathogen in it which this a target DNA that we are after. Your sample is processed to extract the DNA then run into the PCR machine which already has primers, (purchased), each test has its own pair of primers.
Reaction steps during a PCR
i). Denaturation: in this step the DNA sample containing the target sequence is heated to a high temperature of around 94˚c to split the double helix into separate two single stranded DNA copies.
ii). Annealing: temperature is lowered to 50˚c allowing the forward and reverse primers to bind respectively on the start and ends of complementary regions on the template DNA.
iii). Elongation: the temperature is raised to optimal range, DNA polymerase extends the primers by synthesizing a new complementary DNA strand adding building block of DNA, dNTPs
The reaction is repeated for 40cycles, by the end of the PCR cycle, we will be having thousands of DNA copies. the health care then interprets the results of the reaction.
Applications of PCR in medicine
i). Diagnosis of infectious diseases.
PCR is used in identification of diseases causing pathogens in the earliest stages of infection because of its super sensitivity and specificity. Other tests may miss early signs of the diseases due to reasons like; little number of pathogens in the sample, or your body has not had enough time to develop an antibody response. and therefor early detection helps you to start treatments immediately but also helps the health care to prescribe you medications that are specific to that disease.
ii). Genetic testing
PCR is widely used to detect genetic disorders such as mutations within the DNA which are mostly associated with inherited disorders, it is very sensitive and specific during the test. This ability has contributed to earlier and accurate diagnosis allowing for timely treatments.
iii). Forensic medicine
PCR is used in identifying specific DNA patterns called a profile from the sample obtained from a person, this technique is called DNA profiling. this technique is intended to identify individuals, making it very important in forensics during criminal investigations comparing criminal suspects profile to DNA collected from the scene so as to assess the likelihood of crime involvement. But also, this biotechnology technique is used in paternity test to determine whether an individual is the biological parent of another individual.
this biotechnology technique has simplified diagnosis of diseases enabling accurate results, apart from serving a great importance to health, this Technolgy is faced with limitations such as prone to errors due to contamination, therefore, to minimize the chances of contamination, investigators should reserve separate rooms for reagent preparation, the PCR and analysis of the product.
3. Genetic engineering
Broadly genetic engineering is the alteration of genetic makeup of an organism to improve its traits (characters). The aim/purpose of genetic engineering is to modify an organism genetic material making it express traits that it previously didn’t have. These modifications could lead to improved performance of an organism. An organism whose genetic material have been altered by genetic engineering is called a Genetic modified organism (GMO).
Creating a GMO
The process of creating a GMO is not an easy one, it involves multiple steps in which scientists have to work hard and carefully when manipulating the genetic makeup of organisms.
step 1. Identification and Isolation; Scientists have to choose the gene of interest they wish to insert into an organism. This gene can be obtained by isolating it or by artificially synthesizing it (you can study about this in our article about Synthetic biology).
step 2. Insertion: the gene of interest is inserted into a vector, which this acts as vehicle to carry the foreign genetic material to the donor organism. Usually, plasmid vectors are used.
Step 3. Transformation: the plasmid vector containing a gene of interest is introduced in a bacterial culture, bacteria acquire the plasmid vector into themselves by a process of transformation.
NB: Before inserting the obtained gene into an organism of interest, it is first combined with a selectable marker, the selectable marker enables a researcher to determine if an organism has taken up a desired gene.
step 4. Selection: because the gene of interest had been combined with a selectable marker, scientists are able to identify and select only that organism that have taken up desired gene.
Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and in agriculture. In health, genetic engineering has many applications that range from treatment to medical research.
Applications of genetic engineering in health.
i).Gene therapy
Gene therapy is a part of genetic engineering whose aim is to treat genetic diseases by inducing health genes which replace or suppress the action of bad genes. On the above we saw how gene therapy has impacted the field of medicine, we discussed how this technique has revolutionized treatment of disease especially genetic disorders.
Instead of using traditional medical approaches such as medicine and surgery, scientists are able to treat those diseases by simply replacing the default gene with a health one.
Although this technique is still in the early stages, gene therapy shows promise for treating diseases like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, some infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS and certain types of cancers with more precision to targeting the underlaying problem which is in the genes rather than treating symptoms.
ii). Disease research and drug development
In medical research, scientists use some organisms which act as models for studying human disease. Genetic engineering is a powerful tool that scientists use to create organisms that could mimic the human metabolic and physiology systems and serve as models for studying human diseases and drug responses. Mice are the most common genetically engineered animal models. These genetic modified mice are widely used to the study human diseases, such as obesity, heart diseases, diabetes, and substance abuse. But also, if there is a certain drug that has been discovered, these animals are used to study how the drug influences the genetic makeup of humans. But also, these organisms are used to study the functions of genes.
iii). Vaccine development
In recent years scientists discovered a new way to produce vaccines, by using genetic engineering methods instead of using conventional ways. We saw that during the breakout of COVID-19, many COVID-19 vaccines were made using genetic engineering principles. The vaccine is produced by using a synthetic version of a virus mRNA that is responsible for encoding antigens of interest. This mRNA is delivered into cells and cells use it a s template to produce the antigen which will stimulate the immune system response. The advantage of this approach is speed and flexibility in developing vaccines against new pathogens during periods of disease break out.
CONCLUSION
Having seen how biotechnology techniques are applied in health and the way they have transformed the medical landscape by providing innovative solutions for disease diagnosis, treatment and prevention, we are convinced that the integration of biotechnology in healthcare could bring more advancements that may lead to improved healthcare and new ways to face uncurable conditions such as cancer and HIV. However, as with any powerful technologies that emerges, biotechnology techniques too rise ethical concerns. The ability to manipulate a genetic makeup of an organism, raises questions about the possibilities of misusing this technology to create something dangerous to humanity. This is a big challenge that biotechnology faces leading to difficulties in its acceptance and adoption. For this reason, biotechnology products and experiments are often monitored by the regulatory agencies to make sure that this technology is used correctly for the sake of helping humanity and not destroying it.